Egg >>> Larvae >>> Pupae >>> Blowfly

The most common fly to be found in forensic homicide investigations is the blowfly.

Blowflies can often appear on a body around one hour after death, in order to lay their eggs in a moist area.

Soon afterwards, the eggs will then hatch into larvae - usually reaching a length of around half an inch.

Some 6-10 days later the larvae, having fed, grown and repeatedly molted, will turn into pupaes.

Approximately 12 days later adult blowflies emerges, and thus the cycle continues.

Entomology

A forensic scientist can therefore rely upon the lifecycle of the blowfly, to a degree, to provide valuable information about a crime scene.

The drawback, however, is that data can be rendered inaccurate due to the interference and effects of climate conditions, weather, temperature, location, etc.

Most of the time, however, entomology, in conjunction with autopsy reports and crime scene temperatures, can yield a great deal of useful information.

Typically, the purpose of such an investigation is to analyse and discover any available, deleted, or ‘hidden’ data that can then be subsequently used as evidence in legal proceedings.

Additionally, computer forensic techniques can be employed in some cases of hardware failure.

As with all technology, computer forensics is a fast-moving discipline in which new hardware, tools and software are consistently being developed.

This means, generally, that it is becoming increasingly simpler for computer forensic experts to find & restore more evidence and/or data, not only faster, but also with far more accuracy.

Anti-Forensics

Obviously, technological advances also mean that forensic countermeasures are also improving at a similar rate, leading to some interesting challenges.

Digital Evidence

The advent of computer forensics has significantly changed the way in which digital evidence is gathered and used as evidence of a crime, and is performed via advanced techniques and technologies.

A computer forensic expert will use their knowledge of these techniques to aid in the discovery of evidence from an electronic storage device, possibly for either proving or disproving a crime.

Such data can be derived from a wide variety of electronic devices, such as flash drives, discs, tapes, handheld computers, PDAs, memory sticks, emails, logs, or even hidden or deleted files.

Tracking

The average computer user probably thinks that the simple act of deleting a file or item of internet history will remove it completely from the their system.

Reality, however, is somewhat different - deleting a file simply removes it’s marker from the ‘index’ of a hard drive - the actual file will remain on the computer, in whole or in part, until it has been completely overwritten by new data, as can been seen in this video of Encase.

A computer forensic expert has the tools and knowledge required to find such deleted files and to reconstitute them to varying degrees, such that they could be used as admissible evidence.

Enron

The Enron scandal placed computer forensics firmly on the map as it arguably remains the biggest computer forensics investigation ever.

In recent years, computer forensics has become a standard part of many types of litigation, especially litigations of a corporate nature in which there are large amounts of data.

Data Security

In this digital age, data security is a growing issue for the corporate world, covering topics such as internet policies (and the consequences of violating them), and the signing of compliance documents by employees.

Perhaps the best way in which businesses can monitor their own computer systems, in a proactive way, in order to avoid legal consequences in future is to utilise some level of computer forensics.

Simply by making employees aware that such a facility exists could prove a sufficient deterrent to any wrong doing.

Growing Niche

With the huge increase in the use of computers, both in the business sector and in the home, and the increasing number of hi-tech crimes, computer forensics is certainly a growing niche within the litigation support sector.

Unlike many other jobs within the information technology sector, computer forensic work is highly unlikely to be outsourced to other, cheaper, countries, due to the confidentiality of the data which is involved.

Some 40 years after the shooting of Democrat Robert F. Kennedy, new evidence has surfaced which suggests that the man serving a life sentence for his murder may not have fired the shots that killed the charismatic senator.

Earlier this week, forensic scientists met at a conference in Connecticut to discuss their independent findings on the Kennedy assassination.

Doubts

Many of the scientists have some serious doubts as to whether Sirhan Sirhan, currently serving a life sentence for the murder, actually fired the fatal shot that killed Kennedy.

One of the investigators, Dr. Robert Joling, has spent nearly 4 decades studying the Kennedy assassination.

He believes that he has determined that the fatal shot came from somewhere behind Kennedy, whilst Sirhan Sirhan was around four to six feet in front of the senator at the time, and never got close enough to him to have been able to have shot him from behind.

Analysis by another forensics engineer, Philip Van Praag, determined that a total of 13 shots were fired at the time of the Kennedy killing.

This data comes from analysis of a Canadian journalist’s tape recording, known as the Pruszynski recording, and raises a large issue as Sirhan’s gun only held eight bullets, according to the NBC reporter.

This ‘evidence’ would seem to suggest that there must have been a second shooter involved in the assassination of RFK.

‘Friendly’ Fire

Van Praag’s analysis led him to the conclusion that a second gun that was fired was a match for a type owned by one of Kennedy’s guards.

‘When that security guard was asked about owning that gun at first he admitted, ‘Yes I owned that kind of gun but I got rid of it two months before the assassination.’ correspondent Amy Parmenter said on MSNBC Wednesday.

‘It turns out upon further investigation, in fact, he did not get rid of that gun until five months after the shooting. Of course, you can see where we’re going with this. … That security guard, was in fact behind Senator Kennedy when the fatal shot was fired.’

Whilst nurses have worked with forensic patients for some time, it wasn’t until relatively recently that forensic nursing became recognised as a genuine speciality.

On first thoughts, one may think that forensic nursing deals with the investigation of deaths and the perpetrators of such crimes.

However, it is just as likely to be applied pro-actively, looking for signs and evidence within patients who may have the potential to act in violent ways in the future.

Forensic nursing involves -

• the application of science within the legal framework
• treatment of both victims and aggressors in the case of violent or abusive incidents
• utilising recognised forensic healthcare in order to collate evidence.

Forensic nurses have a responsibility to all that need their help. This means that they will make full use of the resources available in order to aid both the victim, and those behind the crimes.

Forensic nurses will be called upon to treat a wide variety of people with very diverse histories and needs.

Working with both victim and perpetrators, they firstly need to screen for forensic data. For example, looking for a history of either criminal activity or victimisation, as appropriate.

Forensic Screening

Violence can be expressed in many ways besides hitting or killing someone. Other forms of violence include financial or sexual abuse, emotional manipulation, threats, cruelty to animals or even destroying property.

When screening children, the forensic nurse should look for signs of violence from the parents. Incidentally, it is possible to see early signs of violent behaviour in children as youg as two. With adults, a history of violence from their parents, or to them, or violence towards their children are often good indicators that they will have tendencies to be a victim or an offender.

Interestingly, it has been discovered that those who are violent to animals are often predisposed to other forms of violence.

Another point of note is that a high proportion of victims go on to become offenders, often repeating the crimes to which they had been subjected to themselves.

The notion that all poisons leave a visible trace is a fallacy. Instead, a visual examination is almost certain to not yield any conclusive evidence.

Therefore, a forensic toxicologist needs to have an eye for detail, especially at the crime scene where items such as chemical residues, pill bottles and powders may aid them in narrowing down the possible causes.

In terms of a body, living or dead, a thorough examination of sympoms would be recorded.

With both the above considered, the forensic toxicologist would then determine which toxic substances are in evidence, their amounts and, also, their effects.

Analysis of substances already within a body can be extremely difficult due to the body manipulating them. For instance, many restricted drugs alter as they are metabolised, i.e. heroin becomes morphine.

Forensic entomology itself can be sub-divided into three further disciplines of medicolegal/medicocriminal, stored product and urban. Forensic entomology is primarily concerned with the study of animal life.

Medicolegal / Medicocriminal forensics examines a wide range of criminal cases. For example, studying insect eggs on a dead body and comparing the findings to known patterns of insect behaviour can give a good indication of time and location of death.

Urban forensic entomology is generally more applicable to civil cases, i.e. examining pest infections and remedies when there is a dispute between a landlord and a tenant.

Stored product entomology is appropriate in cases of infestation or deliberate contamination of commercial food products.

A forensic photographer would be responsible for producing photographic evidence to support other forensic data, medical reports and scientific findings.

Required Skills

Obviously, a forensic photographer must be able to select and competently use the best techniques and equipment in any given situation. A forensic photographer needs excellent skills and an ability to think outside of the box and use unorthodox methods and equipment in order to acquire the photographs that are required.

Attention to detail, a methodical work ethic and a certain kind of dedication are also key skills for this role. Interpersonal skills are also of vital importance as the forensic photographer will deal with a wide range of people from victims to police officers to court personnel. Tact is also required when dealing with victims or witnesses.

A good understanding of police methods, procedures and anatomy are also of major importance.

Responsibilities

Most forensic photography work is fairly standard and repetitive, rather than as depicted in the recent wave of popular crime shows on television. Often, the photographer will be taking photographs of crime scenes, fingerprints, footprints, etc or capturing injuries on film. On occassion, however, they may be called upon to photograph quite distressing scenes.

Generally, forensic photographers are salaried rather than freelance, meaning they enjoy stable employment and all the benefits that brings. Pay, however, is fairly moderate for the type of work involved.

Qualifications / Experience Required

The educational standards required to work in forensic photography are not too demanding. Usually a standard photography based exam is required, though some employers may look for field based examination passes.

Perhaps more important is affiliation with a police force - many photographers work along crime scene investigators and very much learn the ropes “on the job”.

Forensic linguistics has been applied to the letter of the law, that is, examining the original Norman or Latin from which modern English is derived, in order to interpret or challenge said laws. Linguistics can also be used during the court process to assess and challenge the other lawyer, witness and police statements, police interviews and their wording, etc.

Other uses of forensic linguistics include -

• proving plagiarism of written work
• questioning the interpretation of language
• trademark disputes
• proving authorship of anonymous letters
• determining the origin of asylum seekers

Further topics on forensic linguistics will include a look at how the science has upturned the conviction of an innocent man who was hung based purely on police interview evidence and, conversely, how forensic linguistics has been the determining factor in the prosecution of some suspects.

Forensic Botany comes under the much broader heading of forensic biology.

Forensic botanists attempt to gather information from plant life in order to aid in crime investigations.

Detailed examination of leaves, pollen, seeds bark, etc can generate an understanding of a crime scene, specifically giving data about time and location of death, other areas the body may have been before discovery and also whether or not the body had been moved post mortem.

Additionally, forensic odontology can be used in cases of dental malpractice, medical / legal analysis of trauma to oral tissues and also in identifying human remains.

Whilst regular dentists are often used in court cases as “expert witnesses”, certified forensic odontonlogists carry a much heavier weight when presenting their findings due to their extensive training in the legal side of dentistry.

Making positive identifications through the use of dentistry is not a new concept. In fact the Romans are documented as having used forensic odontology as far back as 66 A.D.

History tells us that Nero’s mother, Agrippina, ordered her soldiers to kill Lollia Paulina. Her head was to be brought back to Agrippina in order to prove that the murder had indeed been carried out.

When presented with the head Agrippina was not able to make a positive identification and so examined a tooth which she knew to be discoloured. On discovering that the head she examined had the same discolouration to the same tooth she was able to positively identify it as belonging to Paulinna.

During the U.S. Revolution Paul Revere, a dentist himself, used forensic odontology - identifying battlefield casualties by their bridgework.

However, it wasn’t until a case of People vs. Marx in 1975 that forensic odontology became more mainstream and standardised. The standard produced is quoted below -

In making their painstaking comparisons and reaching their conclusions, the experts did not rely on untested methods, unproven hypotheses, intuition or revelation. Rather, they applied scientifically and professionally established techniques - x-rays, models, microscopy, photography - to the solution of a particular problem which, though novel, was well within the capability of those techniques. In short, in admitting the evidence, the court did not have to sacrifice it’s independance and common sense in evaluating it.

The reason why forensic odontology is a popular means of identification is that teeth are highly resistant to destruction. In fact, dental records were used to identify many victims of 9/11 and also the likes of Adolf Hitler at the end of WWII.